免疫荧光:从一张切片到一句结论
免疫荧光(immunofluorescence, IF)是实验室里最容易出漂亮图、也最容易出错误结论的技术:图很亮,不等于蛋白很多;两个信号重叠,不等于两种蛋白相互作用。这一页按“样本—修复—封闭—染色—成像—判读”的顺序走一遍,并在每一步指出“这一步出错会在图上长什么样”,最后给出判读规则与本科生能亲手承担的部分。红线带编号=13 条注释卡。英文原文附于文末。
你要回答的问题通常是这一类:“这个蛋白在出血灶周围到底还在不在?它在神经元里还是在星形胶质细胞里?和另一个蛋白是不是在同一个细胞上?”免疫荧光是回答这类空间分布问题的主力方法。但它的输出是一张图片,而图片本身不会告诉你结论——结论来自对照、来自定量、来自你对自己这套参数的了解程度。
本篇精译自 STAR Protocols 2023 年的方法学论文《Immunofluorescence protocol for localizing protein targets in brain tissue from diverse model and non-model mammals》(Ciani C, Pistorio G, Mearelli M, Falcone C;4(3): e102482,DOI 10.1016/j.xpro.2023.102482,PMID 37561635),全文翻译;作者用同一套流程在 11 种哺乳动物(小鼠、猕猴、人、黑猩猩、牛、狮、虎、豹、蝙蝠、海豚等)的前额叶皮层上验证了它。英文原文见文末附录。
一、免疫荧光能证明什么,不能证明什么
先把能力边界画清楚,因为后面每一步的操作都是为这三件事服务的。
第一,定位。蛋白在细胞膜、细胞质、细胞核,还是在突起与终末。这是 IF 最硬的能力,因为它有空间分辨率:共聚焦可以到光学切片级别,超分辨可以更细。原文的标题就写得很克制——localizing protein targets,定位蛋白靶标,没有说定量,也没有说功能。
第二,共定位(colocalization)。两个信号是否落在同一个细胞、同一片区域、甚至同一个像素。原文的方法支持单标、双标与三标(single, double/triple immunostaining),双标时要求一抗来自不同宿主种属——这是技术前提,不是可选项。
第三,半定量。阳性面积占比、阳性细胞计数、荧光强度积分。说“半定量”是因为它没有绝对单位:你得到的是“这组比那组亮/多”,而不是“每个细胞有多少个分子”。要做真正的定量,需要流式、Western blot、质谱或 RNA 层面的方法交叉验证。
它不能证明什么?三件事要记牢。不能证明表达量。荧光强度同时受抗体亲和力、抗原修复程度、切片厚度、曝光时间、增益、激光功率、探测器设置影响,任何一个变了,亮度就变了,而蛋白量没变。不能证明功能。看到蛋白从胞质转到核内,只能说明“分布变了”,不能说明“它在那里转录了什么”。不能证明相互作用。共定位只说明两个信号在光学分辨率内重叠,不等于两个分子结合;要证明结合,需要免疫共沉淀、邻近连接(proximity ligation assay, PLA)、FRET 之类的方法。
原文对“成功率”的定义也很实在:在非模式生物、未灌流、过度固定的组织上,仍然得到高信噪比的染色结果。注意这里的措辞——它把目标定在信噪比,而不是“更强的信号”。这两者的区别,第九节会展开。
二、样本:固定、脱水、切片
原文的样本来源很特殊:合作者提供的脑组织与荷兰脑库(Netherlands Brain Bank)的人脑,多数是未灌流、过度固定的(在固定液里泡了几个月到几年)。这套流程就是为了救这类组织而设计的。你自己做小鼠实验时,样本条件通常好得多,但流程的每一步仍然适用。
固定
原文的第一步是:把组织浸入 4% 多聚甲醛(paraformaldehyde, PFA,溶于 PBS)或福尔马林(formalin,即 37% 甲醛的水溶液),4 °C 过夜。注意这是浸泡固定(immersion fixation),因为样本是已经取下来的脑块。
如果你做的是在体实验,标准做法是灌流固定(perfusion fixation),顺序不能颠倒:先以磷酸盐缓冲液(PBS)或生理盐水快速冲净血管内的血液,再用 4% PFA 缓慢灌注。先冲血的理由有两个:血液里的红细胞自带强烈自发荧光(第五节的麻烦之源),血红蛋白还会与后续的显色/荧光体系打架;而先灌 PFA 会把血“固定”在血管里,冲不出来。灌注速度要慢(成年小鼠约 5–10 mL/min,大鼠更慢),太快会造成血管痉挛与组织收缩不均。灌流充分的表现是肝脏变白、四肢僵硬。这一步是标准动物实验操作,不是本 protocol 的内容,但它决定了你后面所有染色的底色。
后固定与蔗糖脱水
取脑后后固定(post-fixation)通常 4 °C 过夜,时间取决于脑块大小;固定不足,切片易碎、抗原弥散;固定过度,抗原表位被交联掩蔽,后面要靠更猛的抗原修复去救。原文对固定时间的上限没有给数字,但从它反复强调“过度固定”的处理方案可以看出:宁可固定稍过,也不要固定不足,因为过度固定还有修复这条后路,固定不足没有。
蔗糖脱水:30% 蔗糖溶于 PBS,4 °C,至少两天,或者等到组织沉到底部。原文的故障排查里专门有一条问“能不能只过夜”,回答是:多数样本需要整整两天,否则低温冻存时会被冰晶损伤。蔗糖的作用是冷冻保护(cryoprotection)——把组织内的水置换出来,减少冰晶,保住形态。原文还提醒:不要在蔗糖里长期存放,会长霉。
包埋与切片
用 OCT 包埋剂(optimal cutting temperature compound)在冰冻模具里包埋,注意不要产生气泡;干冰上或 −80 °C 几分钟固化,然后 −80 °C 保存。切片在冰冻切片机(cryostat)里进行,机箱温度 −20 °C;切片前把组织与装有抗冻液(anti-freezing medium)的 6 孔板一起在机箱里平衡 30 分钟。切片厚度 40 µm,切下的片直接放进抗冻液,每孔不超过 4 片,−20 °C 保存。
抗冻液是这套流程能长期保存切片的关键:30% 蔗糖、0.1 M PBS、30% 乙二醇(ethylene glycol),总体积 500 mL。乙二醇降低冰点,让切片在 −20 °C 下不结冰;蔗糖维持渗透压。这个配方是原文给出的,可以直接抄。
为什么是 40 µm?原文的问答里说得很清楚:这个流程适用于任何厚度,但 40 µm 是信号与组织损伤之间的最佳平衡——太薄,一个细胞被切成几片,共定位判断会错;太厚,抗体进不去,中间那层是黑的(“假阴性核心”)。而漂片(free-floating)——切片悬浮在液体里孵育,而不是贴在玻片上——原文明确说效果更好,因为两面都能接触抗体与试剂。贴片(attached on glass slides)也能做,但信号会差一些。
三、石蜡切片、冰冻切片与漂片:三种载体的取舍
“切片”不是一个动作,而是一组会改变抗原可及性的决定。选错了载体,后面再怎么调抗体也救不回来。原文同时支持三种输入:新鲜组织、福尔马林或多聚甲醛固定的组织、石蜡包埋的组织,并为石蜡样本单独写了一整套脱蜡流程。
石蜡切片
石蜡切片的形态最好:切片薄(常规 4–10 µm)、可连续切片、能长期室温保存、适合做细胞核形态与组织结构。代价是两重:包埋过程的高温与脱水会让抗原进一步变性,而石蜡本身必须彻底去掉,否则抗体根本接触不到组织。
原文的脱蜡流程值得完整走一遍,因为顺序错了会前功尽弃:先用手术刀把组织从塑料托上取下并尽量修掉多余的蜡(省时间,但别伤组织);在通风橱里用足量二甲苯浸泡,直到蜡全部融化,必要时每小时换一次二甲苯;然后梯度乙醇复水——100% 乙醇 15 分钟、96% 15 分钟、75% 15 分钟、50% 30 分钟、PBS 30 分钟。到这一步蜡已经没了,但原文还有一步:把抗原修复液加热至沸腾,把组织放进去,保持在不低于 70 °C 的温度 5 分钟,然后自然冷却。
这一步的用意是“彻底除蜡”,而不是“修复”——因为在石蜡切片里,残留的微量蜡会封住表位。原文特别注明,这里用 70 °C 而不是持续沸腾,是为了避免热休克(thermal shock)把脆弱的组织烫坏。这是一个很实用的细节:同一句话在不同语境下含义不同,“加热”在脱蜡阶段是物理除蜡,在抗原修复阶段才是化学解交联。
冰冻切片与漂片
冰冻切片保住抗原,但形态差一些:冰晶会在组织里留下空洞,切片厚(本流程 40 µm),难以做连续薄片。它的优势在神经科学里是决定性的——40 µm 的厚度足以让一个神经元、一段树突、甚至一个突触后结构完整地留在切片里,共定位判断才不会因为“把细胞切成了两半”而出错。
漂片(free-floating)是原文的默认形式,也是它明确推荐的形式:“这个流程是为 40 µm 厚的漂片设定的,也可以改成更薄的厚度和/或贴在玻片上的切片。”问答部分说得更直接:贴片也能做,但漂片效果更好。原因很朴素:漂片的两面都泡在液体里,抗体、封闭液、染料都能从两侧进入;贴片只有一面能接触试剂,另一面贴着玻片,厚切片中间那层几乎染不上。
三种载体的取舍可以压缩成三句话:要形态与长期保存,选石蜡;要抗原与厚切片共定位,选冰冻漂片;要省抗体、做批量筛查,选冰冻贴片(体积小、一张玻片可放多个样本,但信号与均匀性都差一档)。还有一个常被忽略的变量:切片厚度本身会影响“阳性面积”的定量——40 µm 的切片,一个细胞在投影图里占的面积比 10 µm 切片大,两组数据不能直接比。
四、抗原修复:为什么必须做,以及过头与不足
这是整个流程里最容易被敷衍、也最容易毁掉一批数据的一步。原文给的理由一句话就够:组织固定会掩蔽一抗应当结合的表位,而 pH 与温度的改变可以让靶标重新暴露(unmasking)。
为什么需要
多聚甲醛固定组织的原理,是在相邻的赖氨酸残基(以及其他亲核基团)之间架起亚甲基桥(methylene bridge),把蛋白网络“焊”在一起。这个反应对保存结构极有效,副作用是把表位埋进交联网络里,抗体进不去、或者进得去但结合不上。固定时间越长、温度越高,交联越密,掩蔽越重。原文因此说:抗原修复“强烈推荐”,尤其是用单克隆抗体时——单克隆抗体只认一个表位,那个表位被埋了,整支抗体就失效;多克隆抗体认多个表位,容错率高一些。
热修复与酶修复
两条路。热修复(heat-induced epitope retrieval, HIER)用高温加缓冲液,让部分交联键水解、蛋白构象部分恢复;酶修复(proteolytic-induced epitope retrieval, PIER)用蛋白酶 K、胰蛋白酶等把交联的蛋白网络“啃”开一点。热修复更通用、更可控,是绝大多数实验室的默认选择;酶修复适合某些对热敏感、或表位被深度交联的抗原,但消化时间稍长就会破坏组织形态、产生假阳性——因为酶会把组织消化出“洞”,抗体非特异性地陷进去。
原文走的是热修复,参数写得非常具体:抗原修复液(10 mM 柠檬酸钠缓冲液,含 0.05% Tween-20,pH 6)在烧杯里加热至沸腾(微波炉或加热板均可),把切片放进去,保持沸腾 5 分钟;然后在室温冷却约 30 分钟再取出——这一步是防热休克,也是让蛋白慢慢复性;最后用 PBS 洗,把 pH 拉回生理范围。
这里有一个操作细节常被忽略:一次只处理一张切片。原文明确建议,多张切片要比较时,可以同一批染色、平行处理,但抗原修复要一张一张来。原因是沸腾的缓冲液在烧杯里温度不均,几片一起放,边缘与中心的受热不同,修复程度就不同;而修复程度不同,后面所有强度比较都不成立。
修复液 pH 怎么选
这是文献里最混乱、也最值得讲清楚的一点。常用的两种缓冲液是柠檬酸缓冲液(pH 6)与 Tris-EDTA 缓冲液(pH 9)。经验规则是:pH 6 适合多数胞质与膜蛋白,pH 9 适合部分核内抗原与磷酸化表位(例如 Ki-67、部分转录因子)。但“经验规则”不是定律——同一个蛋白在不同抗体、不同组织上可能偏好不同的 pH,最可靠的做法是两种 pH 各做一次,选信噪比高的那个,并把选择写进方法学。
原文选 pH 6、且不超过 100 °C,理由是“温和”:它要在 11 种哺乳动物、包括过度固定的人脑组织上通用,宁可修复不足也不能把组织煮烂。这个取舍对你的项目是否成立,要自己判断:如果你做的是小鼠新鲜灌注固定的脑,抗原本就保存得好,pH 6 的温和条件通常够用;如果你做的是人脑库组织或长期浸泡固定的样本,可能需要更激进的条件(pH 9、更长时间),并接受组织形态的损失。
修复过头与修复不足,分别长什么样
修复过头:组织边缘卷曲、碎裂、甚至从玻片上脱落(贴片做修复时尤其常见);阴性对照(只加二抗)也开始出现弥散信号;核区出现“糊成一片”的假阳性——因为组织被煮松了,抗体非特异性地渗进核内。最隐蔽的一种:阳性信号确实变强了,但背景也同步变强,信噪比反而下降。
修复不足:信号弱、只在切片最表面那一层有、或者干脆没有;阳性对照组织(已知高表达)也染不出来;核内抗原(如某些转录因子)系统性缺失,而胞质抗原还勉强可见。最典型的误判是把“修复不足”当成“这个蛋白不表达”,然后在讨论里编一个生物学解释。
判断自己处在哪一边,靠三个对照:阳性对照组织、阴性对照组织(或敲除组织)、以及只加二抗的切片。三者一起看,修复是否到位一目了然——这比盯着自己的实验组反复调抗体浓度可靠得多。
五、自发荧光:脑组织最常见的假信号
免疫荧光的第一大错觉是“我看到了信号”。在脑组织里,很多亮的东西根本不是抗体染出来的。原文把这件事放在显眼位置:非灌流或过度固定的组织,自发荧光背景很高,常常把抗体信号整个盖住。这句话有两个关键词:非灌流(血管里的红细胞没冲掉)与过度固定(固定过程本身会生成荧光物质)。
自发荧光从哪来
脂褐素(lipofuscin):神经元与胶质细胞里的“老年斑”,随年龄累积,在 488 nm 附近激发、发射宽而黄绿。人脑组织与老年动物模型里尤其明显,而且它出现在细胞内,很容易被误判为“胞质阳性”。
红细胞与血红蛋白:未灌流组织的血管里全是红细胞,血红蛋白及其降解产物有强荧光,在 555–594 nm 通道尤其讨厌。做脑出血模型的切片时,血肿区本身就是一片“天然荧光源”——你甚至不用染,它自己就亮。
胶原与弹性纤维:血管壁与脑膜里的胶原在紫外与蓝光激发下会发光,表现为血管周围的环形亮带。
固定本身:甲醛与组织蛋白反应会生成 Schiff 碱类荧光产物,固定时间越长越明显。这就是“过度固定的组织背景高”的化学基础。
封片剂与镜油:某些封片剂(尤其含未纯化甘油的)与浸镜油也会发荧光。换一个批次的封片剂,背景可能突然变高。
怎么降
原文给的是苏丹黑 B(Sudan Black B)。配方与步骤都在试剂表里:储存液是 1% 苏丹黑 B 溶于 70% 乙醇;工作液用 70% 乙醇稀释到 0.1%,并过滤去掉未溶的粉末(不过滤,颗粒会粘在组织上,比背景还难处理)。孵育后依次用 70% 乙醇、50% 乙醇、PBS 洗。原文强调,苏丹黑会把孔染成深色,所以洗完后要把组织转移到新的孔里,否则后续所有液体都带色。粉末有吸入毒性,配液必须在通风橱里做。
苏丹黑的作用机制是亲脂性染料与脂褐素等脂类荧光团结合,把它们的荧光“吸收”掉。它的副作用是:过量会同时压低特异性信号,尤其是胞质信号;而且它把组织染成灰蓝色,在明场下很难看(做荧光则无所谓)。所以它是一个“用一点信噪比换很多背景”的交易,用量要试。
除了苏丹黑,还有几种常用手段,原文没有展开,属于通用做法:TrueBlack(商品化脂褐素淬灭剂,操作比苏丹黑简单,背景压得干净,但贵);甘氨酸或氯化铵漂白(用 0.1 M 甘氨酸或 50 mM NH₄Cl 孵育,淬灭醛类固定产生的游离醛基);硫酸铜处理(醋酸铵缓冲液加硫酸铜,压脂褐素);以及最简单的换通道——把目标蛋白放在远红(647 nm)通道,脂褐素在那里几乎不发光。
怎么判断你看到的是自发荧光
三个动作。第一,看未染色的切片:同一批组织,不加任何抗体,只封片,用完全相同的曝光与增益拍一张。如果那个“漂亮的胞质信号”还在,它就是自发荧光。第二,看光谱:共聚焦做一次发射光谱扫描(lambda scan),自发荧光是宽谱,特异性荧光是窄峰。第三,单标对照:只加二抗、不加一抗,看信号是否消失;只加一抗、不加二抗,看是否有内源荧光素酶/自发荧光。
还有一个常被忽略的来源:组织本身的结构。白质束、血管壁、脑膜在明场与荧光下都有规律性的亮带,它们和你的目标蛋白可能长得一模一样。判断方法很简单——它们不随抗体浓度变化,也不出现在阴性对照里。
六、封闭、一抗、二抗、核染、封片、成像
这一步是流程的主体,原文的每个参数都可以直接抄。先把容器说清楚:全程在 6 孔板里做,每孔液体至少 1 mL;转移组织用尖端弯成钩状的玻璃巴斯德吸管,不要用画笔——原文明确说画笔常把组织撕破;除特别注明外,所有孵育都在摇床上、80 rpm。
封闭
封闭液配方:驴血清(donkey serum)10%、Triton X-100 0.3%、0.1 M PBS 补齐到 5 mL(即 500 µL 血清 + 15 µL Triton + 4485 µL PBS)。室温孵育 1 小时。如果买不到驴血清,可用胎牛血清或山羊血清替代,但有一个前提:替代血清的宿主种属要与二抗的宿主一致,否则血清里的抗体可能直接结合你的组织。
封闭液做两件事:通透与降低非特异性结合。Triton X-100 是去垢剂,把细胞膜打出小孔,让抗体进得去胞内;血清里的蛋白把组织上“爱粘东西”的位点占满,减少抗体乱贴。原文还有一条精细的提醒:如果靶蛋白在膜上或跨膜,封闭液里可以不加 Triton——因为通透会破坏膜结构,把膜蛋白“洗”掉,你看到的信号可能来自胞内未成熟的蛋白池。
这一条值得展开。膜蛋白(受体、通道、转运体)的染色,本质是在“膜还在”的前提下看它在不在膜上;一旦 Triton 把膜溶了,膜蛋白会弥散到整个胞质,你就无法判断它是否定位在膜上——而这恰恰是你最想知道的。所以做膜蛋白时,宁可信号弱一点,也要保住膜。
一抗
稀释方式:把封闭液按 1:5 稀释到 PBS 里,再加入一抗到工作浓度。原文用的几个例子是:GFAP(小鼠单克隆,克隆号 5C10)1:500、ALDH1L1(兔多克隆)1:500、S100β(兔单克隆,EP1576Y)1:300。注意原文的态度:每支抗体都有自己的稀释度,必须实验确定,表里的数字只是“在这套体系里试出来的”。
孵育条件:4 °C 过夜,摇床。原文允许延长到最多三晚,但明确不推荐——长时间摇床会损伤组织。这里有一个实际权衡:过夜是标准,三晚是“信号太弱时的抢救”,而抢救的代价是组织完整性。如果你的信号弱到需要三晚,通常说明问题在抗原修复或抗体本身,不在时间。
洗:PBS 洗三次,每次 10 分钟。洗不干净,背景高;洗太久或太猛,组织碎、信号掉。10 分钟 × 3 是原文给的平衡点。
二抗
浓度:原文说常见范围是 1:400–1:1000,试剂表里用的是 1:400(驴抗鼠/抗兔/抗鼠 IgG,Alexa Fluor 488 或 594,均标注 highly cross-adsorbed,即经过交叉吸附纯化,减少种属交叉反应)。稀释液同样是把封闭液 1:5 稀释到 PBS。室温 2 小时。从这一步开始避光——原文的原话是从此步起用铝箔包住多孔板。洗两次,每次 10 分钟。
二抗的选择有三条硬规则:种属匹配(一抗是小鼠来源,就用抗小鼠二抗);交叉吸附(多标时尤其重要,否则抗鼠二抗会同时认出抗兔一抗,两个通道全串);荧光基团的光谱要分得开(488/594/647 是常规组合,488 与 594 之间要留够发射滤片间隔)。
核染
常规用 DAPI 或 Hoechst,1:500 稀释于 PBS,孵育 1 小时,洗两次、三次各 10 分钟。但原文点出了一个关键限制:这类经典的嵌入型染料在过度固定的组织上可能失效——脑库组织在固定液里泡了几个月到几年,DNA 被交联得死死的,DAPI 染不上或染得极弱。
替代方案是NeuroTrace,它是 Nissl 染色的荧光版本(结合粗面内质网,而不是 DNA),1:20 稀释于 PBS,孵育一整天,然后一串洗涤(PBS 两次、PBS + 0.3% Triton、PBS + 0.1% Triton、PBS 两次),最后在大量 PBS 里 4 °C 过夜。原文特别提醒:这最后一步不要摇,否则组织会碎。DAPI 与 NeuroTrace 的取舍很清楚:DAPI 标记的是“细胞核在哪”,NeuroTrace 标记的是“神经元在哪”——前者做结构参照,后者做细胞类型参照,两者不能互相替代。
封片与成像
封片:用画笔把切片小心移到玻片上,避免折叠与气泡;用封片剂封片,原文用的是 Permount,也提到可以用 Mowiol;室温过夜干燥,不要摇;然后避光、4 °C 保存,防止荧光淬灭。
成像:原文用共聚焦显微镜(Nikon A1/R),60× 油镜,取z 轴堆栈(z-stack)至少 42 步、步距 1 µm,覆盖至少 40 µm 的组织厚度,然后在 FIJI(ImageJ)里做最大强度投影(maximum intensity projection, MIP)。为什么必须做 z-stack 而不是拍一张?因为 40 µm 的切片里,细胞分布在不同深度;只拍一个焦平面,你会系统性漏掉一半细胞,也会把“没拍到”误判成“不表达”。
这一串参数里,最该抄下来贴在显微镜旁的是:同一批比较,所有成像参数必须完全一致——物镜、激光功率、增益、曝光、针孔、步距、投影方式。任何一项变了,亮度就不再可比,而你在图上完全看不出来。
七、背景高:按这个顺序排查
“背景高”是免疫荧光最常被报告的问题,也是最常被误诊的问题。多数人第一反应是“抗体浓度太高”,于是把一抗稀释一倍,信号一起变弱,背景没降多少。正确的顺序是从最上游查起,因为越上游的问题,下游调参越救不回来。
第一步,先确认阳性对照还在。用一批已知表达、已知染得出来的组织(同种属、同固定方式)做阳性对照。如果阳性对照也没有信号,问题不在背景,而在“整个体系失效”——抗体失活、修复没做、二抗种属错了、荧光基团被淬灭了。先修这个,再谈背景。
第二步,查抗体。一抗是否过期、是否反复冻融、批次是否换过(换批次是最常见的“昨天还好今天就不行”);二抗是否被反复冻融、是否见光。抗体问题的特征是“信号整体消失或整体变弱”,而不是“背景变高”。
第三步,查抗原修复。修复不足时,特异性信号弱,但你可能会把曝光调高来补偿,于是背景被一起放大——表现为“背景高”。判断方法是看阳性对照是否也弱。修复过头则相反:组织边缘碎裂、阴性对照也亮。
第四步,查封闭与血清种属。血清加了吗?浓度够吗(10%)?更隐蔽的一种:血清的宿主种属与二抗的宿主相同,血清里的内源免疫球蛋白被二抗认出来,整片均匀发亮。这就是原文强调“换血清时要让血清宿主与二抗宿主一致”的原因。
第五步,查二抗。浓度过高(>1:400 时常见)、孵育时间过长、洗涤不足,都会让二抗非特异性贴附。多标时还要查交叉反应:抗鼠二抗是否也认出了抗兔一抗。解决方法是换 highly cross-adsorbed 的二抗,或做单标对照验证。
第六步,区分自发荧光与真信号。不加一抗、只加二抗的切片如果也亮,那是二抗的非特异性结合或自发荧光;完全不加抗体也亮,那是自发荧光或组织自身结构。前者靠封闭与洗涤解决,后者靠苏丹黑、TrueBlack 或换远红通道解决。
第七步,查组织本身。切片折叠(折叠处的两层组织叠加,看起来特别亮)、冻融损伤(冰晶空洞边缘发亮)、干片(切片在染色过程中干过一次,就会留下永久性的高背景环)、固定不良(中心未固定,边缘固定,染色呈“外圈亮内圈暗”)。这些是“背景高”里最容易被忽略、也最不该靠调抗体解决的一类。
八、判读:对照怎么设,共定位怎么量
免疫荧光的结论强度,几乎完全由对照决定。一张漂亮的图配四个对照,比十张漂亮的图配零个对照有价值得多。
四类对照
只加二抗(secondary-only):不加一抗,其余步骤完全一致。它检验二抗的非特异性结合与组织自发荧光。任何在实验组里出现的信号,都必须先在这个对照里“消失”才算数。
同型对照(isotype control):用与一抗同种属、同亚型、但针对无关抗原的抗体,浓度与一抗相同。它检验的是“抗体骨架本身”造成的背景,而不是抗原-抗体结合。单克隆抗体做定量时,这个对照几乎是必需的。
敲除或敲低组织:最硬的对照。如果在敲除小鼠的组织上信号完全消失,说明这支抗体认的确实是目标蛋白。没有敲除模型时,可以用已知不表达该蛋白的组织(阴性组织)替代,但说服力弱一档。
阳性组织:已知高表达的组织。它证明“这套流程能染出来”,是所有阴性结果的必要前提——没有阳性对照的“阴性结果”,在审稿人眼里等于“实验失败”。
共定位怎么量
先明确一个物理限制:光学显微镜的分辨率约 200 nm,两个信号“重叠”只说明它们在同一个衍射极限内,不说明两个分子接触。所以共定位的结论只能写到“在同一细胞/同一亚细胞区域”,不能写到“结合”。
量化的三条路,可靠性递增:目视计数双阳性细胞(在固定视野、固定放大倍数下,数“同时有两个信号的细胞数 / 总细胞数”,由不知道分组的人来数)——最土,但最不容易被参数操纵;Manders 系数(M1 = 通道 1 信号中与通道 2 重叠的比例,M2 反之)——比 Pearson 系数好解释,因为它回答“有多少比例的信号是重叠的”;Pearson 系数——最常被引用,但它对阈值、背景、亮度分布极其敏感,两个完全不相关的信号只要背景足够高,也能算出 0.5 以上。
做共定位必须报告的:通道顺序与染料、是否做了串色补偿(bleed-through)、阈值怎么定、ROI 怎么选、用了哪个系数与软件版本。少一项,别人就无法复现你的数字。
半定量怎么做才不算自欺
三条规则。固定阈值:所有图片用同一个阈值(由阳性对照与阴性对照共同决定),不能“这张调亮一点好看”。固定取样:同一解剖位置、同一放大倍数、同一 z 范围,每只动物至少 3 张切片、每张至少 3 个视野。盲法:定量的人不知道分组,文件名先编号再分析。统计时注意“切片不是独立样本”——同一只动物的多张切片要按嵌套设计处理,不能当成 n。
九、别把亮当多
这一节单独写,因为它是免疫荧光最常见的错误结论,而且看起来最“有图有真相”。
荧光强度是乘法关系,不是加法:强度 ≈ 目标蛋白量 × 抗体亲和力 × 表位可及性 × 荧光基团亮度 × 激发功率 × 曝光时间 × 增益 × 探测器量子效率。你改变其中任何一个,亮度都变。而你在图上看到的只是最后那个乘积。
具体到操作层面,至少有六个因素会让“同样的蛋白量”看起来不一样:曝光与增益(最常被无意改动);抗体批次与亲和力(换一批抗体,亮度可能差一倍);抗原修复程度(同一抗体,修复强一点就亮一点);切片厚度(40 µm 的投影比 10 µm 亮);光漂白(拍得越久越暗,先拍的视野比后拍的亮);封片剂与保存时间(封片后放一周,信号衰减)。
所以“治疗组比对照组亮”这句话,在免疫荧光里几乎不构成证据。它能构成证据的情形只有一种:所有参数被严格固定,且亮度差异大到超出技术变异,同时有正交方法(Western blot、qPCR、ELISA)支持。即便这样,更稳妥的表述也是“阳性面积增加”“阳性细胞数增加”,而不是“表达量升高”。
反过来,暗也不等于少。抗体进不去厚切片的中心、修复不足、膜蛋白被 Triton 洗掉、切片边缘干燥——每一个都能让信号消失,而蛋白还在。看到“没有信号”,第一反应应该是“我的流程哪里没到位”,而不是“这个蛋白不表达”。
十、常见坑与本科生能亲手做哪几步
先列坑,按“后果严重程度”排:切片在染色过程中干过(不可逆的高背景,整批作废);二抗见光(信号整体变弱,且不均匀);抗体反复冻融(效价断崖式下降);换抗体批次没做桥接实验(新旧数据不可比);多标时没做单标对照(串色被当成共定位);封片有气泡(气泡边缘又亮又黑,还挡视野);忘了加比例尺(审稿人第一句话就是问这个);不同组用不同曝光(最致命,且最难自查)。
本科生能亲手做、且能做出价值的部分,比想象中多:
配液与分装。PBS、抗原修复液、封闭液、抗冻液,全部按配方配、按日期标、按批次分装。抗体分装成小管、−20 °C 或 −80 °C、避免反复冻融——这一件事做对,能省下组里大量抗体的钱。
切片与漂片操作。在师兄师姐监督下学着用钩状巴斯德吸管转移切片、换液、避免折叠。这是纯手艺,练两周就能上手,而且是整套流程里最耗时间的一步。
洗涤与时间管理。免疫荧光有一半时间在等(过夜孵育、洗涤、封片干燥)。把时间表排出来、按点执行、记录实际时间,是保证批间一致性的关键。这件事没人愿意做,但它直接决定数据能不能用。
成像参数记录。每次上机,把物镜、激光功率、增益、曝光、针孔、步距、z 范围、投影方式记在同一个表格里。这是“亮度可比”的唯一保障,也是你将来写方法学时最省事的一份材料。
盲法编号与图像管理。给每只动物、每张切片、每个视野一个编号,分析时只看到编号。文件命名统一(动物号_切片号_通道_放大倍数),原始文件不覆盖、不重命名、不压缩。
FIJI 定量。阈值分割、阳性面积、细胞计数、Manders 系数,这些都能在 FIJI 里做,也都能学会。学会之后,你就是组里唯一能把“图”变成“数”的人——这是本科生最容易做出署名贡献的位置。
不要单独决定的事:抗体浓度、修复条件、封闭液配方、是否加 Triton。这些参数一旦定了,就是全组共用的标准;改一次,前面所有数据都要重做。你可以提出怀疑,但不要自己动手改。
十一、原文自己承认的局限
原文的局限写得很清楚,值得原样记住:这套流程只在哺乳动物上验证过(11 种),对其他脊椎动物“看起来有希望”,但没验证;抗体稀释度必须按种属、切片厚度、固定状态重新确定,表里的数字不是通用值;流程适用于单标、双标、三标,但三标时的通道分离与串色问题原文没有展开;它证明的是“能染出高信噪比的图”,没有涉及定量标准化、没有涉及抗体特异性验证——这两件事要你自己补。
还有一条原文没写、但你必须知道的边界:这套流程是为“难处理的组织”设计的,它的默认假设是“组织条件差,所以步骤要温和、要救”。如果你做的是新鲜灌注固定的健康小鼠脑,条件本来就好,过度套用“温和修复 + 苏丹黑”反而会损失信号——苏丹黑会压掉一部分真实信号,温和修复可能对某些核抗原不够。方法学要跟着样本走,而不是跟着论文走。
最后一句:免疫荧光的结论,永远是一句“在什么条件下、看到了什么分布、与什么对照相比”。把这句话写完整,图才有意义;写不完整,图再漂亮也只是图。
▲ 本页翻译难点
immunofluorescence (IF)non-perfused / over-fixedfree-floatingepitope maskingautofluorescenceSudan Black Bpermeabilizenon-specific bindingintercalating dyeNeuroTracemounting mediumsignal/noise ratioz-stack / MAX projection附录 · 英文原文
⚠ 本附录逐字收录既定英文片段(PMC10432796.md,约 21.6K 字符),供对照与检索。机器抽取自公开全文,保留原文的引用编号与符号。
Immunofluorescence protocol for localizing protein targets in brain tissue from diverse model and non-model mammals
Abstract
Previous immunostaining protocols are highly specific for model organisms and often not suitable for diverse specimens that are non-perfused and over-fixed (i.e., tissues sitting in fixatives for months/year). Here, we present an immunofluorescence protocol for localizing protein targets in brain tissue from 11 model and non-model mammals. We describe preparation of both fresh and fixed tissues including steps for deparaffinization, fixation, and cryoprotection. We then detail immunofluorescence procedures including antigen retrieval, reducing autofluorescence, nuclear staining, mounting, and image collection.
Before you begin
Preparation of the samples
Researchers have often little to no control on the preparation protocols for tissues obtained from collaborators or from brain banks. Tissues treated with different fixation and/or embedding methods usually require different immunofluorescence protocols.,, This could lead to variabilities in the data comparison across specimens. In this section, we provide details to fix and embed tissue previously processed in different ways (i.e., fresh, formalin/paraformaldehyde-fixed, or paraffin-embedded), in order to make them consistent for the beginning of the immunostaining procedure. Proceed with the proper embedding protocol, according to the type of the sample that needs to be processed for immunofluorescence.Note: This protocol is set for 40 μm-thick, free-floating slices, but can also be adapted to lower thickness and/or sections attached on glass slides (and).
Institutional permissions
All experiments conform to the safety guidelines at SISSA. Tissues have been donated from collaborators or have been obtained from the Netherlands Brain Bank. The work on human post-mortem brains has been approved by SISSA ethical committee. Please, notice that you will need to acquire permissions from the relevant institutions prior to obtain and work on specific samples.
A. Fresh tissues
Timing: 3 days Timing: 10 min + incubation overnight (for step 1) Timing: 2 days of incubation + 30 min embedding (for step 2) Timing: 1 h (for step 3) 1.Tissue fixation.
Incubate the tissue in either PARAFORMALDEHYDE 4% in PBS or in FORMALIN (i.e., aqueous solution of 37% formaldehyde), overnight at +4°C.2.Tissue embedding.a.After fixing your sample, incubate the tissue in 30%-sucrose in PBS (see) for at least two days (or as long as it takes for the tissue to sink to the bottom of the tube), at +4°C, for cryoprotection ().CRITICAL: It is important to avoid long storage of the tissues in the sucrose solution to avoid the formation of mold.b.After having cryoprotected the tissue, fill the bottom of a cryo-mold with OCT Cryo-embedding medium (see the), lay the tissue on it and cover it with OCT, avoiding bubbles.c.Leave the cryo-mold with the embedding tissues on a flat support either on dry ice (into the hood) or at –80°C for a few minutes, until the embedding medium solidifies.d.Store the tissue at −80°C.3.Tissue cryo-sectioning at the cryostat.a.Prepare a 6-well plate filled with 2 mL of anti-freezing medium (see) per each well.b.Leave the cryo-molded tissue and the 6-well plate filled with anti-freezing medium in the cryostat (at −20°C) for 30 min for acclimatization.c.Cut the tissue sections at 40 μm thickness (and) and put them in the 6-well plate filled with the anti-freezing medium. The number of sections per well depends on the section size (usually no more than 4).d.Store the 6-well plate at −20°C.
B. formalin or paraformaldehyde fixed tissues
Timing: 2 days 4.If your sample is already fixed, proceed with embedding as in steps 2–3 from section A.
C. paraffin embedded tissues
Timing: 3 days Timing: 3 h (for step 5) Timing: 2 days (for step 6) 5.Deparaffinization of the sample.a.Detach the paraffin-embedded sample from the plastic support and trim as much paraffin as possible all around the sample with a scalpel (this step will save you some time, but be careful to not damage the tissue).b.Incubate the paraffin-embedded specimen in abundant xylene (in a chemical hood) until all paraffin is melted (if necessary, change the xylene every hour).c.Re-hydrate the tissue with solutions with decreasing ethanol concentrations, as follows:i.Ethanol 100% for 15 min.ii.Ethanol 96% for 15 min.iii.Ethanol 75% for 15 min.iv.Ethanol 50% for 30 min.v.PBS 1× for 30 min.d.For a complete paraffin elimination, heat the antigen retrieval buffer solution (see) until boiling. Insert the tissue into the solution and keep it at high temperature (not inferior to 70°C) for 5 min (). Then, let the antigen retrieval buffer cool down at room temperature, before proceeding to the next steps. CRITICAL: this step is important to avoid thermal shock. 6.Fixation and embedding.
Fixation is again recommended before embedding the tissue. Proceed as in section A (steps 1,2,3).
Key resources table
REAGENT or RESOURCESOURCEIDENTIFIERAntibodiesRabbit pAb to ALDH1L1 (dilution 1:500)AbcamCat#ab190298 RRID:AB_2857848Mouse mAb Clone:5C10 to GFAP (dilution 1:500)AbcamCat#ab190288RRID:AB_2747779Rabbit Anti-S100 beta antibody [EP1576Y] - astrocyte marker (dilution 1:300)AbcamCat#ab52642RRID:AB_882426Donkey anti-mouse IgG (H + L) highly Cross-Adsorbed secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor™ 488 (dilution 1:400)InvitrogenCat#A-21202RRID:AB_141607Donkey anti-mouse IgG (H + L) highly Cross-Adsorbed secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor™ 594 (dilution 1:400)InvitrogenCat#A-21203RRID:AB_141633Donkey anti-Rabbit IgG (H + L) highly Cross-Adsorbed secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor™ 488 (dilution 1:400)InvitrogenCat#A-21206RRID:AB_141633Donkey anti-rat IgG (H + L) highly Cross-Adsorbed secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor™ 594 (dilution 1:400)InvitrogenCat#A-21209RRID:AB_2535795Biological samplesPrefrontal cortex from Bos taurus (cattle)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Carollia perspicillata (Seba’s short-tailed bat)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Homo sapiens (human)The Netherlands Brain BankN/APrefrontal cortex from Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating macaque)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Macaca mulatta (Rhesus macaque)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Mus musculus (mouse)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Panthera leo (lion)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Panthera pardus (leopard)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Panthera tigris (tiger)CollaboratorsN/APrefrontal cortex from Tursiops truncatus (common bottle-nose dolphin)CollaboratorsN/AChemicals, peptides, and recombinant proteinsPBS tabletsThermo FisherCat#18912014Killik O.C.T. Compound embedding medium for cryostatBio-Optica Milano S.p.A.Cat#059801Donkey serumSigma-AldrichCat#D9663Sudan Black BSigma-AldrichCat#199664Triton™ X-100Sigma-AldrichCat#T9284TWEEN® 20Sigma-AldrichCat#P1379Sodium citrate tribasic dihydrateSigma-AldrichCat#71402Fisher Chemical Permount Mounting MediumFisher ScientificCat#SP15-500NeuroTrace™ 435/455 blue fluorescent Nissl stainThermo FisherCat#N21479DAPI 4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole dihydrochlorideSigma-AldrichCat#32670
Materials and equipment
Antifreeze mediumReagentFinal concentrationAmountSucrose30%150 grPhosphate buffer saline (PBS)0.1 M200 mLEthylene glycol30%150 mLTotal500 mL CRITICAL: Ethylene glycol is toxic; therefore, it should be handled under a chemical hood.
Antigen retrieval citrate buffer.•Sodium citrate buffer 10 mM: add 2.94 gr of Tri-sodium citrate dehydrated in 1 L ddH2O and use a stirrer to dissolve it properly.•Add 0.5 mL of Tween-20 (final concentration 0.05%).
Store the solution at room temperature for maximum 3 months or at 4°C for longer storage.Blocking solutionReagentFinal concentrationAmountDonkey serum10%500 μLTriton X-1000.3%15 μLPBS 0.1 M4485 μLTotal5 mLAlternatives: Donkey serum can be replaced by other serums (e.g., fetal bovine serum, goat serum). If you use different types of serum, it is recommended that the host-species of the secondary antibodies is the same as the serum.
Sudan black solution.•Stock solution: Dissolve the Sudan Black powder in ethanol 70% for a final concentration of 1%.•Working solution: Dilute the stock solution in ethanol 70% to a final concentration of 0.1%. Filter the solution in order to eliminate the undissolved powder.
Store at room temperature, covered by light.CRITICAL: Sudan Black under form of powder could be toxic if inhaled. Use a chemical hood to prepare the solution.
Step-by-step method details
This protocol is performed in a 6-multiwell plate (Note: the volume to add per well is at least 1 mL). The transfer of the tissue from one well to another is performed with a glass Pasteur pipette with a modified tip (i.e., hook-shaped) (). A brush can also be used, but it is not recommended as it can often tear/damage the tissue. All the incubation steps below (if not differently noted) are performed on a shaker (80 rpm).
Antigen retrieval
Timing: 15–30 min
Tissue fixation could mask the protein epitopes to which the primary antibody should bind. Antigen retrieval is highly recommended for the success of the protocol, especially when monoclonal antibodies are used. A change in pH and temperature will lead to the unmasking of the target. Here, we suggest a mild buffer (pH6), and a not-too-high temperature (no more than 100°C). Such parameters have been tested to prevent tissue damages and to allow antigen retrieval (for a wide range of specimens).1.Wash the tissue section for few seconds in PBS 1× (to wash it from the anti-freezing solution and to acclimatize it to room temperature).2.Heat the antigen retrieval buffer in a beaker until boiling (with a microwave or a laboratory heating stove). Insert the slice and keep the buffer boiling for 5 min ().CRITICAL: Before using the section, let the antigen retrieval buffer cool down for around 30 min at room temperature to avoid a thermal shock.3.Incubate the slice in PBS 1× (to recover the physiological pH).Note: Processing multiple sections in one immunostaining session is possible (and recommended when comparing multiple specimens). However, it is recommended to process one section at a time for the antigen retrieval. Once you have finished the antigen retrieval for all sections, you can proceed to the next step and treat them in parallel.
Reduction of autofluorescence
Timing: 40 min Timing: 30 min (for step 4) Timing: 5 s (for step 5a) Timing: 5 s (for step 5b) Timing: 4 min (for step 5c)
One of the main issues of immunofluorescence on non-perfused or hyper-fixed tissues is the high autofluorescence background, often masking the antibody signal. Incubation in Sudan black allows a significant reduction of the background noise, leading to an increased signal/noise ratio.4.Incubate the section with Sudan Black buffer (see).5.Wash the slice.CRITICAL: Sudan Black buffer leaves a strong dark coloration in the well: it is better to transfer the tissue to a new multiwell.a.Ethanol 70%.b.Ethanol 50%.c.PBS 1× (see).
Permeabilization and blocking
Timing: 1 h Timing: 1 h (for step 6)
Incubation with blocking solution will permeabilize the cells (allowing a better penetration of the antibodies) and lower the non-specific binding of the antibodies.Note: "If the antibody's target is localized on the membrane/transmembrane, you can avoid the use of triton in the blocking solution.6.Incubate the slice with blocking solution (see) at room temperature, on the shaker.
Primary antibody labeling
Timing: overnight
In this step, the primary antibody will bind its target.Note: Each antibody has its own dilution rate that should be experimentally determined. It is possible to use more than one antibody at the time in the same solution, as long as they are derived from different host-species.7.Dilute the blocking solution 1:5 in PBS and add the antibody according to the right dilution (see).8.Incubate overnight on a shaker at 4°C.Pause point: If necessary, you can incubate the primary antibody for more than one night, up to 3. However, this step is not recommended, because long incubation times on the shaker can damage the tissue.
Secondary antibody labeling
Timing: 3 h Timing: 10 min each wash (for step 9) Timing: 2 h (for step 11) Timing: 10 min each wash (for step 12) Timing: 1 h (for step 13a) Timing: 10 min each (for step 13a i) Timing: 20 min (for step 13a ii) Timing: 10 min each wash (for step 13a iii) Timing: 1 day (for step 13b) Timing: 10 min each (for step 13b i) Timing: 10 min (for step 13b ii) Timing: 1 h (for step 13b iii) Timing: 10 min (for step 13b iv) Timing: 5 min each (for step 13b v) Timing: overnight (for step 13b vi)
The sample is now ready to be incubated with the proper secondary antibody conjugated with a fluorophore, for fluorescence detection.Note: The dilution of the secondary antibody should be experimentally determined, however it is common to use a dilution rate 1:400–1:1000. To choose the right secondary antibody, see).9.Wash the sample in PBS 1× for three times.10.Dilute blocking solution 1:5 in PBS and add the right volume of secondary antibody according to the right dilution (see).11.Incubate on the shaker at room temperature.CRITICAL: secondary antibodies are light-sensitive, therefore from this step on, it is important to protect the multiwell plate with aluminum foil.12.Wash the sample in PBS 1× for two times.
Nuclear staining
Nuclear staining is usually performed using 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) or Hoechst. However, these classical intercalants could not work on hyper-fixed tissues (e.g., tissues obtained from brain banks have been usually sitting in fixatives for months or years). A valid substitute is the NeuroTrace (the fluorescent counterpart of Nissl staining, (see). Here, we report both protocols, choose the proper one according to the fixation duration of the tissue. We recommend nuclear staining dilutions, but they need to be experimentally determined depending on the tissue.13.Nuclear staining.a.Incubate with DAPI/Hoechst at the dilution of 1:500 in PBS 1×.i.Wash the sample with PBS 1× for two times on a shaker.ii.Dilute DAPI or Hoechst in PBS 1× and incubate with the sample.iii.Wash the sample in PBS for three times on a shaker.b.Incubate with NeuroTrace at the dilution of 1:20 in PBS 1×.i.Wash the sample in PBS 1× for two times on a shaker.ii.Wash the sample in PBS 1× – 0.3% triton on a shakeriii.Dilute the NeuroTrace in PBS 1× and incubate on the shaker at room temperature.iv.Wash the sample in PBS 1× – 0.1% triton on a shaker.v.Wash twice in PBS 1× on a shaker.vi.Incubate in abundant PBS 1× at 4°C.CRITICAL: To avoid damaging the tissue, it is suggested to avoid the shaker at this step.
Mounting and preservation
Timing: 1 day 14.Mount carefully the section on a glass-slide using a brush to prevent formation of folding and/or bubbles ().15.Seal the slide using a mounting medium (we used Permount, see, but also other mounting medium can be used, as Mowiol) and let it dry overnight at room temperature. CRITICAL: No shaker here. 16.Store the slide in a dark box at +4°C, to avoid signal bleaching.17.Use a confocal microscope to image the samples for the best signal-to-noise ratio.
Expected outcomes
This protocol has been tested on brain tissue (specifically pre-frontal and frontal cortical regions) of a wide variety of species belonging to different mammalian orders: Rodentia, Primates, Chiroptera, Artiodactyla, and Carnivora (see and A). The outcome is represented by an immunofluorescence staining with high signal/noise ratio, despite the challenging conditions of the tissues (e.g., tissue from non-model organisms; non-perfused and/or hyper-fixed tissue). This immunostaining protocol can be used to perform a single immunostaining (), a double/triple immunostaining ().Figure 1Examples of outcome for single immunostainings performed on a wide range of speciesThe same immunostaining was first tested on a wide variety of species.(A) On the left, evolutionary tree of the species tested with this protocol. This tree was created with https://phylot.biobyte.de, species taxonomy codes were obtained from NCBI taxonomy database. Scientific names correspond to the following common names: Mus musculus (mouse), Macaca mulatta (Rhesus macaque), Macaca fascicularis (crab-eating macaque), Homo sapiens (human), Pan troglodytes (chimpanzee), Carollia perspicillata (Seba’s short-tailed bat), Bos taurus (cattle), Tursiops truncatus (common bottlenose dolphin), Panthera leo (lion), Panthera tigris (tiger), Panthera pardus (leopard). On the right, indication of the correspondent orders. Color coded is as follows: Rodentia in gray; Primates in dark yellow; Chiroptera in purple; Artiodactyla in blue; Carnivora in orange.(B–J) In green, immunostaining for Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) labeling astrocyte intermediate filament-III; in blue, NeuroTrace labeling nuclei. Species of the brain sections are indicated per each micrograph. Each micrograph is color labeled depending on the order the species belongs to. Scale bars = 20 μm.Figure 2Examples of outcome for double immunostaining tested on a wide range of speciesDifferent examples of double immunostaining on prefrontal cortex specimens from a selected species (i.e., cattle: Bos taurus). The same double immunostaining has been performed on the same species as in A, not showed.(A–A″) NeuroTrace (NT) in blue; S100b (a calcium binding protein expressed in an astrocyte subpopulation) in green; GFAP in red.(B–B″) NT in blue, Aldh1l1 (a pan-astrocytic marker) in green; GFAP in red. Scale bars = 20 μm.(C–C″) NT in blue, CD31 (a marker for endothelial cells) in green; GFAP in red. Full arrowheads point to double-stained cells; empty arrowheads point to single-stained cells. Scale bars = 20 μm.
Tissues shown in Figures are of 40 μm of thickness and the pictures have been taken with Nikon A1/R confocal, with a 60× oil objective. In order to include all the cells across the whole tissue thickness, images were taken as z-stacks of at least 42 steps of 1 μm, to include an optical section thickness of at least 40 μm. Images were subsequently processed as Z-stack MAX-projection modality in FIJI software (ImageJ).
Limitations
This protocol worked properly with all the antibodies we have tested (see). However, the proper antibody dilution should be determined according to the species, the thickness, and the fixation state of the sample. The protocol was tested only on mammalian species (see); but looks promising also for other vertebrates other than mammals, with similar tissue conditions.
Troubleshooting
Problem 1
Is it important to incubate in sucrose for at least two days and not just overnight?
Potential solution
Most of the tested samples needed at least two full days of incubation in sucrose, otherwise they could be damaged by low temperatures.
Problem 2
Is this protocol applicable only to free-floating sections?
Potential solution
The protocol is also applicable to tissues attached on glass slides. However, we have experienced that free-floating sections give better outcomes.
Problem 3
Is it necessary to cut at 40 μm?
Potential solution
The protocol is applicable to any type of thickness, but we found 40 μm is the best balance in order to have a good signal without damaging the sample.
Problem 4
While performing antigen retrieval, should the tissue boil or just be kept at a high temperature over 70°C?
Potential solution
We experienced a deterioration of fragile tissues if boiled. If the temperature is over 65°C–70°C, it is warm enough for melting the remaining paraffin.
Problem 5
Each time a new solution is used, is it better to replace the buffer in the same well or to move the tissue to a new one?
Potential solution
To avoid any damage to the tissue, it is better to replace the old solution with the new one in the same well, without moving the sample. However, in certain steps it is pivotal for the tissue to have a new and cleaned environment. These steps are highlighted as critical in the protocol.
Problem 6
How to choose a secondary antibody?
Potential solution
Secondary antibodies should be chosen according to: the host species of the primary antibody (e.g., α-mouse, if the primary antibody was produced in mouse); the color of the fluorophore (that has to match with the filters and the lasers of the microscope that is going to be used for the acquisitions), the serum used in the blocking solution (e.g., use secondary antibodies raised in donkey if you use a donkey serum).
Problem 7
How to mount the slices on a glass-slide?
Potential solution
We suggest immersing a glass slide in a petri-dish full of PBS 1×, moving the slice in the petri-dish and unfolding it carefully with a brush. Once the slice is in a correct position, start to suck out the PBS, letting the section lean on the slide.
Resource availability
Lead contact
Further information and requests for resources and reagents should be directed to and will be fulfilled by the lead contact, Dr. Carmen Falcone (cfalcone@sissa.it).
Materials availability
This study did not generate new unique reagents.
Data and code availability
This study did not generate any unique datasets or code.
Acknowledgements
AcknowledgmentsThis work was carried out with the aid of the grant Human Technopole Early Career Fellowship awarded to C.F. from the Human Technopole (Milan, Italy). We thank the Netherlands Brain Bank for providing human tissues; Dr. Jean Marie Graïc, Dr. Julio Hechavarria, and Johannes Wetekam for providing the other animal tissues; Dr. Micaela Grandolfo for the technical help with the confocal acquisitions; and SISSA Confocal Microscopy Core Facility.Author contributionsC.C. led and performed the experiments and wrote the article. G.P. performed the experiments. M.M. performed the experiments and wrote the article. C.F. acquired the funding, performed the experiments, revised the article, and supervised the project.Declaration of interestsThe authors declare no competing interests.